Other serious spelling problems
The four most serious English spelling problems (consonant doubling and unpredictable spellings for the EE-sound, the O-E -sound and the two OO-sounds) affect large numbers
of words [1040 + 454 + 378 + 217 = 2089] and create both spelling and reading problems.
Another 1191 unpredictable spellings for 5 sounds (ur/er/ir, or/aw, s, sh and the unstressed half-vowel in endings like –en/ -on/ -an and –er/ -or/ -ar) impede mainly progress in writing.
The endings –en/ -on/ -an/ -in/ -ain are unpredictable in 205 words:
chicken [73] / beckon [69] / pelican [34] / pumpkin [22] / certain [7].
The –er ending which occurs in at least 350 words, like 'mother, sister, thinner'
is not followed by 179: visitor [75], popular [34], future [44],
and in the UK also theatre [7] and harbour [18].
The endings –ary / -ery / -ory / -ury vary randomly in 94 words:
contrary[37] / cemetery[25] / symmetry[14] /dormitory[12] / century[6].
Ur / er / ir - This sound has 206 random spellings: turn[73] / term[70] / third[39]
and [24] others.
Au / aw / al / augh /ough spellings vary in 101 words:
haunt[38] / crawl[37], all[24], bought[7], caught[6].
In standard UK English they spell the same sound as or in 'ford'.
Or /ore /oar /our spellings vary in 127 words: nor[79] / [48] more, roar, four, door.
S / c / sc / ss - This uncertainty causes 195 exceptions from 302 spellings but
comprises three different sub-patterns:
Initial s- [91] (seldom, sincere, system) / [57] c, sc (cell, civil, cynical, scent)
(before e, i and y)
Middle -c- [71] (cancel / [37] -s- , -sc- (counsel, descend)
Final –ce [140] (face, office) / [100] -se, -s, -ss (case, tennis, carcass)
The SH-sound has no reliable spelling pattern in word endings in 145 words:
61 ti spatial, pretentious, mention, ignition
48 ci facial, officious, 20 si tension, 10 ssi mission
and a few others.
The SH-sound also has 33 unpredictable spellings at the beginning and in the middle of
The endings –en/ -on/ -an/ -in/ -ain are unpredictable in 205 words
abdomen alien awaken barren bitten bracken brazen brighten chicken children chosen
christen citizen delicatessen dozen drive eleven even fallen forgotten frighten frozen
garden given glisten golden happen heathen heaven hidden hydrogen kindergarten
kitchen kitten laden lessen lichen listen loosen madden mitten often omen open oven
oxygen pollen raven ridden ripen risen rotten sadden seven sharpen* sodden
specimen spoken stamen stolen strengthen sudden sullen swollen taken threaten
token vixen warren women wooden woollen written
abandon apron bacon badminton baron baton beacon beckon bison carbon
carton cauldron common comparison cordon cotton coupon crayon crimson
damson demon dragon electron flagon gallon heron horizon iron jettison lemon
lesson mason matron melon mutton nylon octagon pardon pentagon person
phenomenon piston poison prison pylon python reason reckon ribbon salmon
salon Saxon season sermon siphon skeleton summon talon treason venison
wagon wanton weapon
chameleon dungeon luncheon pigeon surgeon truncheon
Alsatian amphibian cardigan Christian civilian comedian Dalmatian historian
hooligan Indonesian magician metropolitan musician ocean optician organ orphan
partisan pedestrian pelican republican Roman rowan ruffian slogan suburban
tartan toucan turban urban utopian vegetarian veteran woman
aspirin basin bulletin cabin catkin coffin cousin dolphin gherkin goblin javelin
origin paraffin penguin pumpkin raisin robin satin sequin tarpaulin urchin
vermin
bargain captain certain fountain mountain porcelain villain
The –er ending pattern of 'mother, sister, thinner' is disobeyed by 179 words
actor advisor alligator ambassador ancestors anchor assessors author boaconstrictor
calculator castor conductor conveyor corridor decorator demonstrator director doctor
editor elevator emperor equator error escalator factor gladiator governor indicator
interior inventor investors junior juror legislators liquor major manor mayor minor mirror
monitor motor navigator operator orator prior professor proprietor radiator
razor rector refrigerator respirator rotor scissors senator senior sensors solicitor
spectator sponsor successor superior supervisor surveyor survivor tailor tenor terror
tractor traitor tutor victor visitor warrior
In UK English not –or:
armour behaviour colour favour flavour glamour harbour honour humour labour
neighbour odour parlour rumour saviour savour splendour tumour
angular burglar caterpillar cellar circular collar dollar familiar grammar guitar jaguar
liar linear lunar muscular nectar nuclear particular peculiar pillar polar poplar
popular radar regular scholar secular similar sitar solar spectacular sugar vicar
vulgar
adventure agriculture architecture capture caricature creature culture departure
expenditure feature fracture furniture future gesture lecture legislature literature
manufacture miniature mixture nature picture puncture scripture signature structure
temperature torture venture vulture
conjure exposure failure figure fissure figure fissure injure leisure measure pleasure
treasure pressure procedure
In UK English not -er: centre fibre ogre sabre theatre metre kilometre
[73]
[63]
[ 6]
[34]
[22]
[ 7]
[75]
[18]
[34]
[44]
[ 7]
333 common words end with –er are listed below. Many more can be formed on the pattern of 'bigger, fonder, nicer' and 'helper, drinker, thinker.
In UK English, the –a ending also sounds very similar to –er.
algebra, antenna , area, arena , armada, asthma, banana, cafeteria, camera, capita, china, cinema, cobra, dahlia, data, dilemma, diploma, drama, era, extra, formula, gala, gondola, gorilla, gymkhana, hydrangea, hyena, idea, larva, lava, llama, malaria, militia, nebula, opera, orchestra, panda, panorama, peninsula, piazza, piranha, pizza, pneumonia, propaganda, pupa, quota, regatta, replica, soda, sofa, stigma, tarantula, tiara, tuba, tundra, umbrella, utopia, vanilla, veranda, via, villa, yoga, zebra
The endings –ary / -ery / -ory / -ury vary randomly in 94 words
adversary anniversary arbitrary aviary boundary burglary commentary contemporary contrary diary dictionary elementary estuary February January library literary military monetary necessary ordinary planetary preliminary primary pulmonary reactionary revolutionary salary secondary secretary solitary stationary summary temporary veterinary vocabulary voluntary
archery artery artillery blustery celery cemetery colliery crockery delivery discovery drudgery every gallery jewellery lottery machinery monastery mystery nursery pottery recovery robbery scenery stationery surgery
category dormitory factory history inventory ivory laboratory memory observatory satisfactory territory theory
carpentry chemistry country entry gantry industry infantry paltry pantry pastry poetry poultry symmetry tapestry
[37]
[25]
[12]
[14]
[ 6]
Ur / er / ir Learners have to memorise 206 spellings for this sound: 73 ur, 71 er, 39 ir,
11 ear, 9 or and 3 our. Only 8 words beginning with wor- are fairly predictable.
absurd blur burden burglar burgle burly burn burr burst church churn curfew curl curlew curse curt curve disturb excursion fur furnish furry further gurgle hurdle hurl hurt hurtle incursion lurch lurk murder murmur nasturtium nurse nursery occur purchase purple purpose purr purse return slur spur spurn spurt sturdy suburb surf surface surge surgeon surgery surname surplus survey Thursday topsy-turvy turban turbine turf turkey turmoil turn turnip turquoise turtle urban urchin urge urn yurt
berth fern her herb herd jerk nerve perch serve stern swerve term verb verge verse advertisement alert alternative anniversary assert certain commercial concern confer conserve conversion deserve dessert detergent determine emerge eternal exert expert external fertile germinate hermit impertinent insert interpret jersey kernel merchant mercury mercy observe perfect perfume permanent permit person pertinent preserve refer reserve reverse sermon serpent terminate termite thermal transfer* universal university verdict vermin version versus vertical were
birch bird birth chirp circle circuit circular circumstances circus confirm dirt encircle fir firm first flirt girder girdle girl mirth shirk shirt sir skirmish skirt smirk squirm squirt stir swirl third thirst thirteen thirty twirl virtually virtue whirl whirring
earl early earn earnest earth heard learn pearl rehearse search yearn
courtesy journal journey
attorney word work world worm worse worship worst worth
[73]
[71]
[39]
[11]
[ 3]
[ 9]
Au / aw / al / augh /ough spellings vary in 101 words.
applause assault astronaut auburn auction audible August authentic author authorise automatic autonomy autumn cauldron cause caution cosmonaut daub exhaust gaudy haul haunt jaunt launch launder maul nautical Paul pause Santa-Claus sauce saucer staunch tarpaulin taunt taut vault
awe awful awkward awning brawn dawdle dawn drawn fawn hawk lawn pawn prawn sawn spawn squawk yawn
claw draw flaw gnaw jaw saw straw thaw law paw raw
bawl brawl crawl drawl scrawl shawl sprawl trawl
all ball call fall gall hall install pall recall small squall stall tall wall
chalk stalk talk
appal bald falter halt instalment salt scald
bought brought fought nought ought sought thought
caught daughter haughty naughty slaughter taught
broad poultry
[37 au]
[35 aw]
[17 al]
[ 7 a]
[7 ough]
[6 augh]
Or /ore /oar /our spellings vary in 127 words.
or orb born cord cork corn corpse for force ford forge fork form fort forth gorge
gorse horn horse lord nor norm north porch pork port scorch scorn shorn short snort
sort sport stork storm sword sworn thorn torch torn
absorb afford border conform corgi corner cornet divorce enormous fortress fortune
forty forward glory important morning normal northern orbit orchard order ordinary
ornament perform platform popcorn portable portion portrait proportion record reform
report resort scorpion storage story tortoise uniform
adore before bore carnivore chore core folklore fore gore ignore implore ore
more pore score shore snore sore store swore tore wore
four pour tour your course court mourn resources source tournament
boar oar roar soar board coarse hoard hoarse
[79]
[22]
[10]
[8]
[8]
Initial s- / c, sc (before e, i and y)
sea seal seam see seed seek seem seen seep seldom select self sell senate senator
send senior sensation sense sent sentence sentiment separate September serious
serpent serve session set settle seven several sex
sick side siege sieve sigh sight sign signal signature signify silence silent silk silly
silver similar simile simmer simple simplify simultaneous sin since sincere sincerity sing
singe single singular sinister sink siphon sipping sir sister sit sitar site situation six
size sizzle
syllable symbol symmetry sympathy symphony symptom synagogue synchronise
syndicate syndrome synonym synopsis synthesis syringe syrup system
cease cedar ceiling celebrate celebrity celery cell cellar cellophane cement cemetery
cent central centre century cereal ceremony certain certificate
cider cigar cigarette cinder cinema circle circuit circular circulate circumference
circumstances circumstantial circus cistern cited citizen citrus city civic civil civilian
civilisation civvy
cycle cyclical cyclone cygnet cylinder cymbals cynical cypress cyst
[91]
[57]
Middle -c- / s- , -sc- (cancel / counsel, descend)
ancestors cancel cancer coincide conceal concentrate concern concert council criticism
December decent decide deciduous decipher decision decisive docile electricity exercise
facetious facilities grocer hyacinth incident innocent license magnificent medicine
narcissus necessity Pacific parcel pencil percent percentage perception pincer plasticine
porcelain precise princess principal principle publicity recent recess recite rhinoceros
saucer sincere society specific stencil suicide
conceive conceit concept conception deceit deceive receipt receive reception
precede procedure proceed proceedings proceeds process procession
absent arsenic consent consequence conservative counsel analysis basic basin
capsize consider consist crisis emphasis hypothesis insect insert insist morsel oasis
persevere persist prehensile prosecute responsible tonsil university utensil
abscess ascend ascertain condescend descend disciple discipline fascinating proboscis
[55]
[16]
[37]
Final –ce and other spellings for the final S-sound
Final S-sound after a long vowel
advice brace choice device dice embrace face fleece grace ice introduce juice lace
mice nice niece pace peace piece place plaice police price race reduce rejoice replace retrace rice sacrifice sauce slice sluice space trace truce twice vice voice
base case cease chase close* crease dose douse excuse* geese goose grease house* increase loose mouse noose precise release these those use*
* In the words 'close', 'excuse', 'house' and 'use' se spells both the S and Z sounds,
depending on context (e.g. 'no use, to use').
[39]
[22]
The 22 unpredictable –se endings after a long vowel cause reading as well as spelling
problems, because in 120 words, -se spells the Z-sound (e.g. choose, rise, wise).
Final S-sound after an unstressed vowel
apprentice armistice coppice crevice justice notice novice office practice / practise
precipice service menace necklace palace surface terrace lettuce
premise promise purchase purpose tortoise
analysis axis basis bronchitis chrysalis crisis emphasis hypothesis iris oasis pelvis
proboscis synthesis tennis tonsillitis trellis
atlas canvas Christmas pampas pyjamas
abscess access congress cypress fortress mattress harness process progress recess
witness
carcass compass embarrass trespass convalesce
[17]
[7]
[21]
[16]
Final S-sound after consonants (n, p, l, r) and the -ance /-ence problem
absence adolescence circumference commence competence conference confidence
conscience consequence defence difference essence evidence existence experience
fence hence independence indifference influence innocence insolence intelligence
interference licence occurrence offence patience pence presence providence
reference science sentence sequence silence violence
abundance acceptance accordance advance alliance allowance ambulance appearance
appliance assurance balance chance dance distance endurance enhance entrance finance
fragrance glance guidance ignorance importance instance insurance lance maintenance
nuisance performance prance resistance romance significance stance substance trance
vengeance
dense expanse expense immense intense license nonsense response rinse sense
suspense tense
collapse copse corpse eclipse elapse glimpse impulse lapse else pulse
coarse course curse gorse hoarse horse nurse purse rehearse reverse universe
verse worse [13]
commerce divorce fierce force (enforce reinforce) pierce source
[37]
[37]
[22]
[13]
[6]
The SH-sound has few exceptions from pattern of 'shop' at the beginning of words
sure sugar chalet champagne chandelier charade chef chivalrous chute
Only 25 common words have a SH-sound in the middle of words, but they use 6 different
spellings.
ancient appreciate associated efficient ocean species sufficient
patient
crochet machine parachute microfiche moustache
pressure assure issue tissue
conscience fascism
mushroom bishop cashew, marshal usher
The SH-sound has no reliable spelling pattern in in word endings:
e.g. logic – logician, office – official, but palace – palatial.
circumstantial credential existential palatial preferential reverential substantial
confidential differential influential penitential presidential sequential torrential
consequential essential initial potential residential spatial
artificial beneficial commercial crucial facial financial glacial judicial official racial
sacrificial social special superficial controversial
atrocious avaricious judicious pernicious pugnacious suspicious vivacious audacious
delicious malicious precious rapacious tenacious voracious auspicious ferocious officious precocious spacious vicious
ambitious cautious conscientious contentious facetious fictitious licentious
nutritious pretentious propitious superstitious surreptitious conscious luscious anxious
aspersion conversion dispersion diversion excursion immersion incursion
inversion subversion version extortion portion proportion
attention convention detention intention intervention invention mention prevention
comprehension condescension dimension expansion extension mansion pension suspension tension
ambition ammunition competition composition condition definition edition exhibition
expedition ignition intuition opposition position proposition recognition repetition
tradition
admission commission emission mission permission transmission fission
suspicion
discussion percussion passion fashion cushion coercion ocean
beautician mathematician statistician electrician musician tactician Grecian optician
logician physician magician politician gentian
after alter amber amplifier anger angler another answer antler aster badger baker banister barrier barter beaker beater beaver better bewilder bitter blister boarder bomber border bother brewer bricklayer brother buffer builder bumper butcher butter camper cancer carpenter catcher cauliflower cavalier chamber chandelier chandler chapter character charter cinder clamber cleaner clever climber cloister clover cluster commander commissioner commuter composer computer conifer conker consider consumer cooker corner counter cover crater crier cucumber customer cylinder dancer danger daughter dealer December defender deliver designer diameter differ digger diner dinner disaster discover dreamer driver duster eager either elder employer encounter endanger enter ever exchequer falter farmer farther father feather feeler fender fester fighter filter finger fishmonger fitter flicker flipper flower former frontier further gander garter gather geyser ginger girder glacier glider glitter hairdresser hamburger hammer hamper hamster hang-glider heather helicopter helter-skelter hinder holder holster hover hunger hunter inner insider intruder invader juggler jumper Jupiter killer ladder larder later lather latter laughter lawyer leader leather leper letter lighter linger listener litter lobster lover lower lumber maker manager manger manner manufacturer master matter meander member merger meter miller minister monster mother murder murderer muster neither never number offer officer older order other outer outrigger over owner painter pamper pannier panther paper partner passenger pepper pester peter pewter philosopher photographer pincer pitcher plaster player plumber ponder porter poster potter powder power prayer prefer premier prisoner producer programmer propeller proper prosper quarter rafter raider rasher rather reader recorder refer register reindeer remainder remember reporter revolver rider river robber roller rudder ruler salamander saucer scamper scatter screwdriver September shelter shoulder silver sinister sister sitter skewer slender slipper slither smother sober solder soldier spanner speaker speedometer spider spinnaker spinster splinter sprinkler steamer stranger sucker suffer summer super supper surrender swelter tamper tanker taxpayer teacher teenager temper tender tether thermometer thunder tiger timber tinker together tower trader trailer trainer transfer transporter traveller trawler trigger tuber under uppe